Nightmares
In common current usage, the term nightmare refers to dreams of particular intensity, with content that the sleeper finds disturbing, related either to physiological causes, such as a high fever, or to psychological ones, such as unusual trauma or stress in the sleeper's life. The occasional body movements seen in nightmares may have a use in awakening the sleeper, thus helping to avoid the frightening dream-situation. Occasional nightmares are commonplace, but recurrent nightmares can interfere with sleep and may cause people to seek psychological help. * When considered a disease, nightmares are classified as follows: ** ICD-10 code = F51.5 ** ICD-9 code = 307.47 Nightmares in children Nightmares in adults Assessment Treatment A recently proposed treatment consists of imagery rehearsal (PMID 15984916). This approach appears to reduce the effects of nightmares and other symptoms in acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorderhttp://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/286/5/537. Nightmares and psychological trauma Nightmares and mental disorders Nightmares in psychoanalysis Neuroscience of nightmares Many studies have confirmed a high prevalence of nightmares and some have correlated them with high stress levels. Multiple models of nightmare production have been proposed including neo-Freudian models as well as other models such as image contextualization model, boundary thickness model, threat simulation model etc. Neurotransmitter imbalance has been proposed as a cause of nightmares, as also affective network dysfunction- a model which claims that nightmare is a product of dysfunction of circuitry normally involved in dreaming. As with dreaming, none of the models have yielded conclusive results and studies continue about these questions. Historic use of term Nightmare was the original term for the state later known as waking dream and more currently as sleep paralysis, associated with rapid eye movement (REM) periods of sleep. The original definition was codified by Dr Johnson in his A Dictionary of the English Language and was thus understood, among others by Erasmus Darwin and Henry Fuseli, to include a "morbid oppression in the night, resembling the pressure of weight upon the breast." Such nightmares were widely considered to be the work of demons, which were thought to sit on the chests of sleepers. In Old English, the being in question was called a mare or mære (from a proto-Germanic *marōn, related to Old High German and Old Norse mara), whence comes the mare part in nightmare. This type of waking dream is called mareridt in Danish, cauchemar in French, pesadilla in Spanish, Alpdruck or Alptraum in German, incubo in Italian, pesadelo in Portuguese and kanashibari in Japanese. Medical investigation Studies of dreams have found that about three quarters of dream content or emotions are negative. One definition of "nightmare" is a dream which causes one to wake up in the middle of the sleep cycle and experience a negative emotion, such as fear. This type of event occurs on average once per month. They are not common in children under 5, more common in young children (25% experiencing a nightmare at least once per week), most common in adolescents, and less common in adults (dropping in frequency about one-third from age 25 to 55). Fearfulness in waking life is correlated with the incidence of nightmares.The Science Behind Dreams and Nightmares, Talk of the Nation, national Public Radio. 30 October 2007. See also *Dream content *Sleep disorder *Night terror *Sleep paralysis *Mara (folklore) Notes * Max Eastman visited Sigmund Freud's apartment in Vienna, in 1926. He saw a print of Fuseli's The Nightmare, next to Rembrandt's The Anatomy Lesson. Ernest Jones chose another version of Fuseli's painting as the frontispiece of his book On the Nightmare, however neither Freud nor Jones mentioned those paintings in their writings about the classic nightmare. References Books *Adams, E. M. (1987). The neuropsychology of nightmares. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Anch, A.M., & Browman, C.P., & Mitler, M.M., & Walsh, J.K. (1988). Sleep: A scientific perspective. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. *Jones, Ernest (1951). On the Nightmare (ISBN: 0871409127) (pbk, 1971; ISBN: 0871402483). *Simons, Ronald C and Hughes, Charles C (eds.)(1985). Culture-Bound Syndromes. Springer, 536pp. *Sagan, Carl (1997). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark . Papers *Harris J.C. (2004). Arch Gen Psychiatry. May;61(5):439-40. The Nightmare. (PMID 15123487) *[http://www.kluweronline.com/article.asp?PIPS=300244&PDF=1 Forbes, D. et al. (2001)] Brief Report: Treatment of Combat-Related Nightmares Using Imagery Rehearsal: A Pilot Study, Journal of Traumatic Stress 14 (2): 433-442 Further reading Books *Agargun, M. Y. (2007). Nightmares and suicidality. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group. *Baumann, C., Lentzsch, F., Regard, M., & Bassetti, C. (2007). The hallucinating art of Heinrich Fussli. Basel, Switzerland: Karger. *Buirski, P. (1987). The nightmare in psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Bulkeley, K. (2003). Dreams of healing: Transforming nightmares into visions of hope. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. *Carranza, C. R., & Dill, J. R. (2004). Banishing night terrors and nightmares: A breakthrough program to heal the traumas that shatter peaceful sleep. New York, NY: Kensington Books. *Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997). Traumatization in refugees. Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc. *Clemens, E. V., Shipp, A. E., Williamson, L. L., & Lowe, I. N. (2007). "There's a monster under my bed!": Sleep problems. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. *Cushway, D., & Sewell, R. (1992). Counselling with dreams and nightmares. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. *Davies, M. J. (1987). Nightmares and psychopathology. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Davis, J. L. (2009). Treating post-trauma nightmares: A cognitive behavioral approach. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co. *Devera, M. V. (1997). Sleep disturbances. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. *Durand, V. M. (2006). Sleep Terrors. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media. *Encel, J. S., & Dohnt, H. K. (2007). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of trauma-related nightmares in children: A developmental adaptation of imagery rehearsal therapy. Bowen Hills, QLD, Australia: Australian Academic Press. *Galvin, F., & Hartmann, E. (1990). Nightmares: Terrors of the night. Los Angeles, CA, England: Jeremy P Tarcher, Inc. *Gray, A. A. (1987). Nightmares, hypnagogic hallucinations, and sleep paralysis. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Hanlon, J. (1987). The nightmare and intrapsychic conflict. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Hartmann, E. (1996). Who develops PTSD nightmares and who doesn't. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. *Hartmann, E. (1998). Dreams and nightmares: The new theory on the origin and meaning of dreams. New York, NY: Plenum Trade. *Heaton, K. J. (2004). Working with nightmares. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Hickey, D. A. (2001). The nightmare box: Empowering children through dreamwork. Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson. *Jones, E. (1971). On the nightmare. Oxford, England: Liveright. *Juda, D. P. (1987). Personality characteristics of nightmare sufferers and some speculations on the meaning of the nightmare. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kaminer, H., & Lavie, P. (1993). Sleep and dreams in well-adjusted and less adjusted Holocaust survivors. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. *Kavaler, S. (1987). Nightmares and object relations theory. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). The nightmare: Psychological and biological foundations. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). Nightmares and the structure of personality: Conclusion and compilation of postulates. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). Nightmares and the structure of personality: I. Psychoanalytic dream theory and an introduction to a structural theory of nightmares. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). Nightmares and the structure of personality: II. The basic nightmare themes and their relation to personality. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). Nightmares and the structure of personality: III. The intrapsychic function of defense mechanisms. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Kellerman, H. (1987). Nightmares and the structure of personality: IV. Cognitive and psychosomatic structures. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Krakow, B. (2004). Imagery Rehearsal Therapy for Chronic Posttraumatic Nightmares: A Mind's Eye View. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Co. *Kramer, M. (1990). Nightmares (dream disturbances) in posttraumatic stress disorder: Implications for a theory of dreaming. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. *Lansky, M. R., & Bley, C. R. (1995). Posttraumatic nightmares: Psychodynamic explorations. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Analytic Press, Inc. *Lobby, T., & Dixon, T. (1990). Jessica and the wolf: A story for children who have bad dreams. Washington, DC: Magination Press/American Psychological Association. *Mack, J. E. (1974). Nightmares & human conflict. Oxford, England: Houghton Mifflin. *McNamara, P. (2008). Nightmares: The science and solution of those frightening visions during sleep. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. *Moss, C. S. (1975). Treatment of recurrent nightmares in a drug abuser by hypnosymbolism. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. *Nielsen, T., & Lara-Carrasco, J. (2007). Nightmares, dreaming, and emotion regulation: A review. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group. *Raddock, F. D. (1987). Nightmares, problem sleep, and peculiar bedtime behavior in children. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Roig, J. (2005). Nightsweats. Charleston, SC: BookSurge. *Safer, J. M. (1987). Psychoanalytic theory of the nightmare in the light of recent physiological research. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Siegler, A. L. (1987). The nightmare and child development: Some observations from a psychoanalytic perspective. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. *Stern, M. M., & Stern, L. B. (1988). Repetition and trauma: Toward a teleonomic theory of psychoanalysis. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Analytic Press, Inc. *Stoddard, F. J., Chedekel, D. S., & Shakun, L. (1996). 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